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J Cereb Blood Flow well include an astroglial component (141) buy zenegra 100mg amex erectile dysfunction medication with high blood pressure. New York: Oxford genual prefrontal cortex is reduced in familial forms of UniversityPress effective 100mg zenegra impotence icd 9, 1995:299–318. Regulation of intracellular sodium in cultured rat hippocampal neurones. J Physiol (Lond) 1997a;499: cortical volume could be ascribed to a marked decrease in 573–587. Cell structure and function in the evidence for the involvement of glia in certain psychiatric visual cortex of the cat. K at concentrations posed role of astrocytes in the 18F-deoxyglucose PET signal reached in the extracellular space during neuronal activitypro- (80). Chronic treatment with neuroleptics has been associ- motes a Ca2 -dependent glycogen hydrolysis in mouse cere- bral cortex. Although these examples still need validation synaptic potentials mediated by GABA and dopamine evoked in terms of their relevance in the pathophysiology of certain in stellate glial cells of the pituitarypars intermedia. J Neurosci neuropsychiatric disorders, they provide, along with ad- 1993;13:4660–4668. Alvarez-Maubecin V, Garcia-Hernandez F, Williams JT, et al. J Neurosci 2000; grounds for opening the scope of psychiatric neuroscience 20:4091–4098. Glial modulation of neural excitabilitymediated Chapter 10: Astrocytes 143 byextracellular pH: a hypothesis. Prog Brain Res 1992;94: on the membrane potential of glial cells in the central nervous 37–46. Electrophysiological properties of J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1992;12:593–602. In: Astrocytes: biochemistry, physiology and pharmacol- 48. Solutions of the Hodgkin-Huxley ostasis in rat spinal cord astrocytes. J Neurosci 1998;18: equations modified for potassium accumulation in a periaxonal 3554–3362. Ceiling of stimulus induced rises in changes in CNS white matter: the role of glial cells. Can J Physiol extracellular potassium concentration in the cerebral cortex of Pharmacol 1992;70:S181–189. Extracellular potassium in the mammalian central precursors for the synthesis of preferentially released glutamate. The operation of changes of extracellular K and Ca2 on synaptic and neural the gamma-aminobutyrate bypath of the tricarboxylic acid cycle function in the CA1 region of the hippocampal slice. New York: Oxford University Physiol 1981;43:397–407. Astrocyte glutamate transport: in the size of the extracellular space in the sensorimotor cortex review of properties, regulation, and physiological functions. Activity-dependent zation of glutamine synthetase in astrocytes of rat brain. Brain shrinkage of extracellular space in rat optic nerve: a develop- Res 1979;161:303–310. Influence of fied glutamatergic synapses contain glutamine synthetase: evi- potassium ions on accumulation and metabolism of (14C)glu- dence for transmitter degradation. Changes in extracellular potassium 15 utilization: pathways of nitrogen transfer studied with [ N]glu- concentration produced byneuronal activityin the central ner- tamine. Cellular mechanisms of brain energy extracellular K accumulation in rat optic nerve: the role of metabolism and their relevance to functional brain imaging. Cerebral metabolism of lactate in vivo: 1986;481:269–272. Ann NY Acad Sci 1986; Prog Biophys Mol Biol 1993;60:17–28.
The hypothesis that 5-HT modulates impulsive aggressive Research into the etiologic determinants of both preme- behavior in humans was first advanced in the same year by both Sheard et al generic 100mg zenegra visa impotence vacuum treatment. The former group demonstrated that treatment with lithium carbonate Emil F generic 100 mg zenegra mastercard erectile dysfunction from a young age. Coccaro: Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago, (an agent with putative 5-HT–enhancing properties), but Pritzker School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois. Siever: Psychiatry Service, Bronx Veterans Affairs Medical Cen- not placebo, reduced impulsive aggressive behavior in prison ter, Bronx, New York. Adirect relationship between lumbar patients with low lumbar cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concen- CSF 5-HIAA concentration and aggression in these subjects trations of 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA). This work suggests that aggressiveness may be associated with increased led to a large number of subsequent studies, using a variety (rather than decreased) intrasynaptic concentrations of 5- of 5-HT measures, designed to test the 5-HT hypothesis HT. These data could be consistent with a deficiency hy- of aggression further. If postsynaptic 5-HT function is unchanged (or increased), however, these data 5-HT and Aggression: CSF 5-HIAA Studies would suggest increased 'net' 5-HT function in these sub- Brown et al. Evidence examining these hypotheses is discussed in tween CSF 5-HIAA and a life history of aggression (r the following sections. This finding was replicated in a follow-up study using another variable reflective of aggression (i. In both samples, a trivariate relationship between re- duced CSF 5-HIAA and aggression and suicidal behavior Coccaro et al. Later reports demonstrated that reduced mine (PRL[D,L-FEN]) response in drug-free mood-disor- CSF 5-HIAA was specific to impulsive rather than premedi- dered and personality-disordered patients compared with tated (i. In addition, patient subjects first demonstrated that CSF 5-HIAA among violent of- with a history of a suicide attempt displayed blunted fenders whose index crime was classified as 'impulsive' (i. Personality-disordered, but not mood-disordered, violent offenders whose index crime was classified as 'non- patients also displayed an inverse relationship between var- impulsive' (i. The hypothesis that 'impulsiveness' is the key behav- and PRL[D,L-FEN] responses. Because experimental reduc- ioral correlate of reduced 5-HT activity was later advanced tion in norepinephrine (NE) activity has been shown to in a series of studies from Virkkunen et al. In eliminate the expected aggressive behavior of animals with these studies, CSF 5-HIAA concentrations of 'impulsive' reduced 5-HT (28), a reduction in NE system function in arsonists were reduced to the same degree as in 'impulsive the mood-disordered (29), but not the personality-disor- violent offenders' and were significantly lower than those dered (30), subjects could have mitigated the influence re- observed in healthy volunteers. Because both impulsive ar- duced 5-HT function could be expected to have on the sonists and impulsive violent offenders had (theoretically) expression of aggressive behavior. For the depressed patient, 'impulsivity' in common, these investigators proposed that reduced NE system function may be associated with a re- the key correlate to reduced CSF 5-HIAA was impulsivity as duction in efficiency to attend to novel (e. Further study noted that PRL[D,L-FEN] responses accordingly, it may be premature to conclude that the key were inversely related to CSF 5-HIAA and were directly behavioral correlate of reduced central 5-HT function is related to PRL[meta-chlorophenylpiperazine or m-CPP] re- impulsivity rather than a combined construct of impulsive sponses, an index of postsynaptic receptor activation (25). An inverse relationship between CSF 5-HIAA When these 5-HT measures were examined in the same and aggression or impulsivity has also been reported in male personality-disordered subjects, a relationship between 5- patients with alcoholism (17), in behaviorally disruptive HT and aggression was noted for both PRL[D,L-FEN] and male children and adolescents (18), and in rhesus (19) and PRL[m-CPP] responses (which were also directly corre- pigtailed macaques (20). The reason probably is the presence tivity of the postsynaptic 5-HT receptor. Available data sug- of subjects who are less severe in their aggressive behavior. Studies ex- with alcoholism (38,39), suicidal patients (40), violent of- amining the platelet 5-HT2A receptor in aggression are few, fenders (41), healthy volunteers from the community (42), and results are mixed, with one study reporting no relation- and macaques (43). Nonreplication studies involve subjects ship (61), another reporting a negative relationship (62), with history of primarily nonalcoholic substance abuse (44, and yet another reporting a positive relationship (63) be- 45) and children with disruptive behavior disorders (46, tween this 5-HT receptor and aggression. Whole-blood 5-HT concentrations have been is possible that nonalcoholic drugs of abuse modify the neu- reported as elevated in juvenile offenders compared with robiological substrate of subjects so correlations between 5- normal control subjects (64) and as a function of age of HT and measures of impulsive aggression are direct rather onset (65). Apositive correlation between platelet 5-HT than inverse, as are seen in patients with alcoholism (38, concentration and measures of aggression in adult depressed 39). In children, two studies reported a positive correlation patients (66) has also been reported. Negative studies, how- between aggression and PRL[D,L-FEN] response (46,47), ever, include those performed in mentally retarded adults and one reported a negative correlation between aggression (67) and in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity dis- and thermal [D,L-FEN] responses (50). The ratio of plasma tryptophan to other compet- older children, two studies reported no correlation between ing neutral amino acids was lowest among patients with PRL[D,L-FEN] and aggression (48,49). It is possible that alcoholism with a history of depression or aggression and changes in the 5-HT system occurring over development was lowest among those patients with alcoholism with a affect the nature of the 5-HT–aggression relationship in history of both depression and aggression in two studies that this relationship is positive in some 5-HT–mediated (69,70).
When published buy discount zenegra 100 mg on-line erectile dysfunction caused by sleep apnea, DSM5 retained the previous categorical system cheap zenegra 100 mg mastercard chewing tobacco causes erectile dysfunction. However, an Alternative DSM5 Model for Personality Disorders - a proposed research model of personality was also presented – with a view to moving further in this direction in the future. The suggested dimensions include, Identity, Self-direction, Empathy and Intimacy. Last modified: November, 2015 12 Strong criticisms of the DSM5 has been expressed (Frances, 2013). The problematic DSM-5 personality disorder proposal: options for plan B. Journal of the American Medical Association 2005; 293:2526-2528. A phenomenological investigation of overvalued ideas and delusions in clinical and subclinical anorexia nervosa. Last modified: November, 2015 1 CHAPTER 4 DELUSIONS AND DELUSIONAL DISORDER Delusions are false beliefs that continue to be believed in spite of evidence to the contrary (these beliefs are not held by the general public, or any sub-group of the community). A particular mental symptom may occur in different mental disorders. Delusions may occur in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (manic or depressed phases), major depressive disorder, substance abuse and major neurocognitive disorders. In these disorders, delusions are accompanied by other signs and symptoms. Delusional disorder is an exception, as in this disorder, delusions are the only symptoms present. A study in anorexia nervosa (Steinglass et al, 2007) found that the fear of weight gain reached delusional proportions in 20% of cases. Body dysmorphic disorder involves preoccupation with “one or more perceived defects in physical appearance”, which are non-existent or mild. In DSM5 this condition is listed under Obsessive- Compulsive and Related Disorders – and when the belief is held with delusional intensity the qualification “without insight” is added – it is not listed under Delusional disorders. Mental Disorder Comment Delusional Disorder Delusions only. Schizophrenia Delusions may take many forms – including persecutory and bizarre. Are accompanied by at least some other symptoms such as hallucinations, problems with logical thought or self-neglect. Bipolar Disorder (mania) Delusions associated with undue confidence, elation and overactivity, rapid speech. Often grandiose plans to make a fortune or establish world peace. Organic Mental Disorder Variable presentations depending on the pathology. Found in most Lewy body disease cases (Gaig et al, 2011). Anorexia nervosa AN patients may have fears of weight gain which reach delusional proportions (Steinglass et al, 2007). A diagnosis is only possible after consideration of the complete clinical picture. Categories of delusions Delusions can be categorized in various ways. The following are not mutually exclusive categories; for example, a delusion may be both bizarre and systematized. Bizarre delusions are absurd and factually not possible. They may involve newly discovered gods or supernatural/space creatures. Grandiose delusions are beliefs that the individual has exceptional beauty, intelligence or influence. Persecutory (or paranoid) delusions include that the individual is being harassed, threatened, watched or bugged. They often involve spies, bikies, God, Satan or neighbours. Delusions of reference are the belief that the everyday actions of others are premeditated and made with special reference to the patient.
O verall purchase 100 mg zenegra fast delivery erectile dysfunction causes of, 39% of patients with acute renal failure develop new hypertension cheap 100mg zenegra visa impotence use it or lose it. The balance between cardiac output and systemic Increased extracellular fluid volume Increased Increased vasoconstriction Decreased vasodilation vascular resistance determines blood pressure. Decreased glomerular filtration rate contraction Increased adrenergic stimuli Decreased prostacyclin Numerous studies suggest that cardiac output Impaired sodium excretion Increased Inappropriate Decreased nitric oxide is normal or elevated, whereas overall extra- Increased renal nerve activity adrenergic renin-endothelin release cellular fluid volum e is expanded in m ost Ineffective natriuresis, eg, atrial activation Increased endothelin-derived natriuretic peptide resistance contracting factor patients with chronic renal failure. Systemic Increased thromboxane vascular resistance is inappropriately elevated relative to cardiac output, reflecting a net shift in vascular control toward vasoconstricting mechanisms. Several mechanisms affecting vascular tone are disturbed in patients with chronic renal failure, including increased adrenergic tone and activation of the renin- angiotensin system, endothelin, and vasoac- tive prostaglandins. An additional feature in some disorders appears to depend on reduced vasodilation, such as in impaired production of nitric oxide. Essential hypertension is charac- terone-stim ulated kidneys) or reduced renal blood flow as a terized by higher renal perfusion pressures required to achieve result of an arterial stenosis (“Goldblatt” kidneys). B, Distortion of this relationship routinely instances, higher arterial pressures are required to m aintain occurs in patients with parenchym al renal disease, illustrated here sodium balance. A negative balance of nearly 1700 mEq was required before evidence of achieving dry weight was observed, specifically a reduction of blood pressure. M easured levels of plasma 100 renin activity gradually increased during sodium rem oval, and blood A pressure becam e dependent on the renin-angiotensin system, as defined by a reduction in blood pressure after administration of the FIGURE 2-9 angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor captopril. Achieving adequate Sodium expansion in chronic renal failure. The degree of sodium reduction of both extracellular fluid volum e and sodium is essential expansion in patients with chronic renal failure can be difficult to to satisfactory control of blood pressure in patients with renal failure. A, Shown are data regarding body weight, plasma renin B, Daily and cumulative sodium balance. FIGURE 2-10 Angiotensin II inhibitor, µg/kg/min Interaction between sodium balance and angiotensin-dependence in malignant hypertension. Reduction of blood pressure induced by the angiotensin II antagonist was reversed during saline infusion with a positive sodium balance and reduction 150 in circulating plasm a renin activity. Adm inistration of a loop diuretic (L40 [furosem ide], 40 m g intravenously) induced net sodium losses, restim ulated plasm a renin activity, and 100 restored sensitivity to the angiotensin II antagonist. Such observations further establish the reciprocal relationship between the sodium status and activation of the renin-angiotensin 200 system. Adrenergic activity is dis- Normal person turbed in chronic renal failure and m ay par- ticipate in the developm ent of hypertension. M icroneurographic studies in patients undergoing hem odialysis dem onstrate enhanced neural traffic (panel A) that Hemodialysis, relates closely to peripheral vascular tone. B, Delayed onset nephrectomy hypertension in denervated rats. Panel B shows evidence from experimental studies in denervated animals subjected to deoxycortico- sterone–salt hypertension. The role of the renal nerves in m odifying the developm ent of hypertension is supported by studies of Neurogram renal denervation that show a delayed onset of hypertension, although no alteration in Electrocardiogram the final level of blood pressure was achieved. Panel B from Katholi and coworkers; with perm ission. Som e data support each of IN RENAL PARENCHYM AL DISEASE these pathways, although rarely does one m echanism predom inate. Experimental studies suggest that endothelin-1 may magnify interstitial fibrosis and contribute to hypertension in som e m odels; however, Increased vasoconstrictors Impaired or relatively inadequate vasodilators rarely is the effect major [8,9]. M ost levels of vasodilators, including nitric oxide, prostacyclin, and atrial natriuretic peptide, are norm al Renin-angiotensin system Nitric oxide: inadequate compensation or elevated in patients with renal disease. The vasodilators appear Endothelin Vasodilator prostaglandins: prostacyclin 2 to buffer the vasoconstrictive actions of angiotensin II, which m ay Prostanoids: thromboxane Natriuretic peptides: atrial natriuretic peptide be increased abruptly if the vasodilator is rem oved, as occurs with Arginine vasopressin Kallikrein-kinin system inhibition of cyclo-oxygenase with the use of nonsteroidal anti- Endogenous digitalis-like inflam m atory drugs. A, Urinary endothelin levels in dim inished glom erular filtration rate. W ith tim e, however, these patients with cyclosporine-induced renal dysfunction and hypertension changes lose the feature of reversibility.
