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By E. Hector. University of Maine. 2018.

The love and sexual lives of homosexuals are little different from those of heterosexuals cheap serpina 60caps anxiety and depression association of america, except where their behaviors are constrained by cultural norms and local laws generic serpina 60caps on line anxiety uncertainty management theory. As with heterosexuals, some gays and lesbians are celibate, some are promiscuous, but most are in [39] committed, long-term relationships (Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994). Although homosexuality has been practiced as long as records of human behavior have been kept, and occurs in many animals at least as frequently as it does in humans, cultures nevertheless vary substantially in their attitudes toward it. In Western societies such as the United States and Europe, attitudes are becoming progressively more tolerant of homosexuality, but it remains unacceptable in many other parts of the world. The American Psychiatric Association no longer considers homosexuality to be a “mental illness,‖ although it did so until 1973. Because prejudice against gays and lesbians can lead to experiences of ostracism, [40] depression, and even suicide (Kulkin, Chauvin, & Percle, 2000), these improved attitudes can benefit the everyday lives of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. Whether sexual orientation is driven more by nature or by nurture has received a great deal of research attention, and research has found that sexual orientation is primarily biological [41] (Mustanski, Chivers, & Bailey, 2002). Areas of the hypothalamus are different in homosexual men, as well as in animals with homosexual tendencies, than they are in heterosexual members of the species, and these differences are in directions such that gay men are more similar to women than are straight men (Gladue, 1994; Lasco, Jordan, Edgar, Petito, & Byrne, 2002; [42] Rahman & Wilson, 2003). Twin studies also support the idea that there is a genetic component to sexual orientation. Among male identical twins, 52% of those with a gay brother also reported homosexuality, whereas the rate in fraternal twins was just 22% (Bailey et al. There is also evidence that sexual orientation is influenced by exposure and responses to sex hormones (Hershberger & Segal, 2004; Williams & Pepitone, [44] 2000). To avoid these negative outcomes, we must use our cognitive resources to plan, guide, and restrain our behaviors. And we (like Captain Sullenberger) can also use our emotion regulation skills to help us do better. Even in an age where the addictive and detrimental health effects of cigarette smoking are well understood, more than 60% of children try smoking before they are 18 years old, and more than half who have smoked have tried and failed [46] to quit (Fryar, Merino, Hirsch, & Porter, 2009). Although smoking is depicted in movies as sexy and alluring, it is highly addictive and probably the most dangerous thing we can do to our body. Poor diet and physical inactivity combine to make up the second greatest threat to our health. But we can improve our diet by eating more natural and less processed food, and by monitoring our food intake. Exercise keeps us happier, improves fitness, and leads to better health and lower mortality (Fogelholm, 2010; Galper, Trivedi, [47] Barlow, Dunn, & Kampert, 2006; Hassmén, Koivula, & Uutela, 2000). And exercise also has a variety of positive [48] influences on our cognitive processes, including academic performance (Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer, 2008). Bingeing leads to deaths from car crashes, drowning, falls, gunshots, and alcohol poisoning (Valencia-Martín, Galán, & Rodríguez-Artalejo, [49] 2008). Binge-drinking students are also more likely to be involved in other risky behaviors, such as smoking, drug [50] use, dating violence, or attempted suicide (Miller, Naimi, Brewer, & Jones, 2007). Some teens abstain from sex entirely, particularly those who are very religious, but most experiment with it. It takes some work to improve and maintain our health and happiness, and our desire for the positive emotional experiences that come from engaging in dangerous behaviors can get in the way of this work. But being aware of the dangers, working to control our emotions, and using our resources to engage in healthy behaviors and avoid unhealthy ones are the best things we can do for ourselves. Low metabolic rates, which are determined entirely by genetics, make weight management a very difficult undertaking for many people. Uncontrolled obesity leads to health problems including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, sleep apnea, arthritis, and some types of cancer. Lateral hypothalamic lesions: Effects on drinking elicited by carbachol in preoptic area and posterior hypothalamus. Drug insight: The role of leptin in human physiology and pathophysiology-emerging clinical applications. A role for memory for what has been eaten, as evidenced by a study of multiple meal eating in amnesic patients.

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Remember the response of the nurse is nursing that is amenable to variation in practice guided by all that she is generic serpina 60 caps otc anxiety chest pains. This includes his or her settings and to the changing patterns of nursing professional role cheap 60 caps serpina anxiety 24 hour helpline, ethics, and competencies. A nurse, a group of nurses, or the community Look at the conceptual framework of Human- of nurses hearing and recognizing that call respond istic Nursing Theory in Figure 11–1 to help explain in a manner that is intended to help the caller with and illustrate some of its basic concepts and as- the health-related need. It also Humanistic Nursing Theory, when we speak of includes past experiences with persons in the human beings, we mean patients (e. A person becomes a patient when he viduality as incarnate human beings who exist in or she sends a call for help with some health-related this particular space at this particular time, with problem. The person hearing and recognizing the circumscribed resources and in a physical body that call is a nurse. A nurse, by intentionally choosing to senses, filters, and processes our experiences to become a nurse, has made a commitment to help which we assign subjective meanings. In humanistic nursing we say to be a unique human being with his or her own that each person is perceived as existing “all at particular gestalt (see Figure 11–3). This task You can easily see that a nursing theory that is can be done with tenderness, dignity, and with based in the human context lends itself to phenom- masterful technical skills that make the procedure enological inquiry rather than reductionism, which almost unnoticeable. I once watched as a nurse po- attempts to remove subjective humanness and sitioned and suctioned a patient; as she performed strives to achieve detached objectivity. The early the task, she made sure that she also repositioned phenomenologists saw their goal as the examina- the little basket of flowers that she had placed by tion and description of all things, including the the patient’s bedside. The repositioning of the flow- human experience of those things, in the particular ers really had nothing to do with the technique of way that they reveal themselves. It showed that the nurse recognized the Phenomenology is not only a philosophy, but it patient as a unique human being, and she did is also a method—a method that can be integrated something special to make the experience less into a general approach or way of viewing the stressful and as comfortable as possible for the pa- world. Comfort in this instance refers to the idea that clined to cultivate it and make it a part of their through the relationship engendered and nurtured everyday approach to nursing. This method is no in intersubjective dialogue, there arises the possibil- less rigorous in its application than methods used ity for persons to become all that they can be in in experimental research to build theories. In The phenomenological movement of the nineteenth phenomenology, a statement’s validity is based on century was in response to what its proponents whether or not it describes the phenomenon accu- called the dehumanization and objectification of rately. The truth of all the statements resulting from the world by the logical positivists. These These will be taken up as we discuss the phases of phases are presented sequentially but are actually inquiry. The phases of humanistic In the first phase, the inquirer tries to open herself nursing inquiry are: up to the unknown and to the possibly different. It includes • Nurse complementarily synthesizing known the conceptual and experiential framework that others we bring into any situation with us, a framework • Succession within the nurse from the many to that is usually unexamined and casually accepted as the paradoxical one we negotiate our everyday world. This to bracket it purposefully so that we do not super- process of bracketing versus intuiting is not contra- impose it on the experience we are trying to relate dictory. This ity of phenomenology are based on the ongoing re- “holding in abeyance” does not deny our unique ferring back to the phenomenon itself. It is selves but suspends them, allowing us to experience conceptualized as a dialectic between the impres- the other in his or her own uniqueness. This shifting back and forth al- By intentionally bringing into present con- lows for sudden insights on the nurse’s part, a new sciousness, and acknowledging what we believe to overall grasp, which manifests itself in a clearer, or be true, we can then attempt to hold any precon- perhaps a new,“understanding. A a dialogue with her unbracketed view (see Figure personal experience that helped me to grasp the 11–4). As I entered each new country, I experienced the In the next phase, objectivity is needed as the nurse excitement of the unknown. Standing time how alert, open, and other directed I was in outside the phenomenon, the nurse examines it this uncharted world as compared to my own daily through analysis. According to Husserl (1970), who is considered the father of modern phenomenology, the attitude desired is that of the perpetual beginner. Bracketing prepares the inquirer to enter the un- charted world of the other without expectations and preconceived ideas. Even temporarily letting go of that which shapes our own identity as the self, however, causes anxi- ety, fear, and uncertainty. Labeling, diagnosing, and routine add a necessary and very valuable pre- dictability, sense of security, and means of conserv- ing energy to our everyday existence and practice.

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See current ers and collaboratively by those involved in tradi- research buy generic serpina 60 caps line anxiety symptoms youtube, http://niam discount serpina 60caps otc anxiety disorder 100 symptoms. Selected reading for additional information The largest and most authentic resource of Lad, Dr. John in both traditional Western medicine and Bastyr College Publications, Seattle, Wash. New York: John Wiley & New Delhi, India; the Mount Sinai School of Med- Sons, 2001. The typical dose of a Bach’s tor, and homeopathic physician born in 1887 who flower tincture is four drops on or under the worked at the London Homeopathic Hospital in tongue as often as necessary. Another method for England and who between 1928 and 1932 set forth making flower tinctures is the sun method, in the seven major negative human emotions that which harvested blooms or parts of the plant are correspond with ill-being or illness and developed floated on water in a glass bowl and placed in the remedies (called nosodes, or homeopathic prepara- sunshine for three hours, after which only the tions) for them from specific flowers and plants. At age 43 Bach (pronounced “Batch”) became Bach wrote extensively on his flower remedies, disillusioned with standard medical practice and including the books Heal Thyself and The Twelve decided to pursue his belief that healing involved Healers and Other Remedies (both C. He also specified that after his death, no homeopathic concept of vibrational healing, he more essences were to be added to the 38 existing discovered through his patients that grief, frustra- remedies for the purpose of keeping the system as tion, anxiety, fear, despair, loneliness, and uncer- simple as possible, so individuals would be able to tainty contributed significantly to their physical diagnose their emotional problems and self-treat. For example, the typical beech tree grows to approximately 100 feet tall and its branches span Bach Flower Remedies In addition to being the approximately 80 feet. Bach concluded from this inspiration for several other flower remedies and other growth habits and traits of the beech that made in Australia, California, Europe, and else- its essence could encourage people who are intol- where, the original remedies that are believed to erant, critical, and nonempathetic to open non- employ the life force, or vibrations, of each flower judgmentally to the world’s beauty. To create his to help relieve negativity of varying nature, bal- remedy, he boiled leaves and twigs from the beech ance energy, and thereby encourage physical and tree in water, let them simmer and cool thereafter, emotional healing. Ballentine water Bach added a small amount of brandy (the wrote of flower remedies: “If you have ever tried standard mix per flower or plant substance is 50 to pick blackberries, you know it’s tricky. The milliliters (mL), or one-and-a-half fluid ounces, of vines are covered with sharp spines. The biggest the prepared water to 100 mL, or three fluid and most succulent berries always seem to be a ounces, of brandy). You work 15 16 Bach Flower Remedies your way in edgewise so you can reach a bit fur- such as tea, so the steam can make the alcohol ther. When cool, the drink may be sipped The long branches of the blackberry plant are throughout the day. No matter which actual part of the plant remains in the tincture— way you move, some of those thorns dig in are to be taken until the patient feels relief and deeper. The essence of the black- begins to notice the stimulus of his or her own berry flower is used as a remedy for those who are healing mechanism. Each flower or plant addresses at a point in their lives where they feel stuck— one or more emotional imbalances: unable to find a way to move. He was on the faculty of the Rescue Remedy is a combination of five flower Louisiana State University School of Medicine, essences: star of Bethlehem, rock rose, impatiens, Department of Psychiatry, and studied the cherry plum, and clematis. For 12 years used remedy, it treats feelings of panic, mental he served as president of the Himalayan Institute, numbness, shock, terror, fear of flying, response to and for 18 years as director of its Combined Ther- startling noise—any emotional state of emergency apy Program, in which he developed models of 18 Banerjee, P. This book was originally published in 1979): “The close interrelation between your 1931. The potential Barral visceral manipulation A system of body- exists for thought processes to lead both to disease work that is geared to releasing restrictions and and to good health. This has over his or her physical condition, as a start- therapy is reported to enhance the entire body’s ing point for the rationale of behavioral medicine. In addition, Barral’s to pain and pain relief, and that symptoms of cer- modality may facilitate the release of internalized tain diseases such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, emotion. He discovered that the organs have a and colitis are clearly at risk of being aggravated five- to eight-cycle-per-minute rhythm of move- by psychological stress. However, even then the risk nique involves the use of light, precise mechanical versus benefit principle should be applied. You force, which rebalances the organ and helps should not allow yourself to become convinced revive its normal function. Is it not foolish to spend healthy years worried about disease that Bates Method for Improving Eyesight A relax- is not present and may never occur? Many indi- ation system geared toward restoring the natural viduals in previous generations appeared to have use of the eyes and relearning to see developed by faith in their own health. There will be sity and of the College of Physicians and Surgeons enough time for you to work with your physician in New York, Bates practiced at Bellevue, Harlem and to learn how to adjust to an illness if it occurs. You have a right to expect to be as well as pos- the New York Eye Infirmary and taught ophthal- sible for as long as possible.

Bacteria that exacerbate chronic bronchitis are: Streptococcus pneumoniae Haempphilus influenzae Mycoplasma pneumoniae Branhamella catarrhalis Laboratory diagnosis: Specimen: Sputum Procedure: Gram staining generic 60 caps serpina amex anxiety symptoms kidney, culture purchase serpina 60 caps free shipping anxiety symptoms vs panic attacks, biochemical and serological test for microbe identification. Clinical features: Sudden onset of fever, chills, sweating, and productive cough of purulent or blood streaking sputum and pleuritic chest pain. Procedure: Gram staining, culture, biochemical and serological test for microbe identification. Giardia lamblia causes diarrhea by physical coverage of the normal absorptive surface. Laboratory diagnosis: Specimen: Stool, rectal swab Wet mount preparation: Pus cells, red blood cells, parasites and ova. Incubation period and severity of disease in food infection is determined by inoculum of micro-organism ingested. Examples of food intoxication Organism Incubation period Clinical findings Related food item Bacillus cereus 1-6 hours Vomiting, cramp Rice, Pasta dishes Staphylococcus aureus 2-4 hours Vomiting Meat, Salads Clostridium botulinum 12-72 hours Flaccid paralysis Meat, Vegetables Table 4. Examples of food infection Organism Incubation period Clinical findings Related food item Bacillus cereus 6-24 hours Watery diarrhea Meat, Vegetables Salmonella spp. These are: Escherichia coli Pseudomonas aeruginosa Klebsiella pneumoniae Proteus spp. Enterobacter aerogens Other important causative agents: Enterococci Staphylococcus saprophyticus 318 Routes of infection 1. Obstruction: Congenital anomalies in youngs and prostatic adenoma, stricture and calculi in olds. Lower urinary tract infection: Infection of urethra and bladder which manifests with frequency of micturition, pain during micturition, blood-stained or cloudy urine, supra pubic tenderness. Gram stain: The presence of one bacterium in Uncentrifuged gram stained urine confirms Urinary tract infection. Culture: Blood agar medium, Mac Conkey agar medium Interpretation of culture results 5 1. Genital tract infection manifests as either genital discharge or genital ulceration with or without inguinal lymphadenitis. Ectoparasites Phthirus pubis Pubic hair louse infestation Sarcoptes scabei Scabies 321 Urethral and vaginal discharge 1. Urethritis It manifests with urethral discharge, pain during urination and frequency of urination. Clinical findings: White mucoid discharge Laboratory diagnosis: Specimen: Urethral discharge or swab (Before urination or antibiotics) Wet mount: T. The organism which causes bacteremia are less virulent and usually cleared from blood with in 3o min. It occurs in normal and abnormal heart valves and tissues with fulminant course resulting in death in six weeks time if not treated. It occurs in acquired or congenitally damaged heart valves with less fulminant course resulting in death after six weeks if not treated. Amount needed is 2ml for a child and 10 ml for an adult to give 1:10 dilution of the specimen. Blood culture bottle should have 18 ml and 90 ml of broth for a child and an adult respectively. Time of incubation of blood culture is 7 days and subculture is done in first, third and seventh day of incubation. If the appearance of blood culture is changed to cloudy, it indicates bacterial growth. Interpretation of results • Positive bacterial growth in three of blood culture broth ----- Definitive diagnosis • Positive bacterial growth in two of blood culture broth----- Probable diagnosis • Positive bacterial growth in one of blood culture broth----- Contamination Common contaminants of blood culture S. In children ----------- Haemophilus influenzae Streptococcus pneumoniae Neisseria meningitidis. In adults ------ Streptococcus pneumoniae Neisseria meningitidis Haemophilus influenzae Clinical features:. Sudden onset of head ache, fever, malaise, vomiting associated with neckand back stiffness, behavioral changes like irritability and drowsiness, convulsions and coma. Partially treated acute pyogenic meningitis 328 It manifests with unexplained head ache of weeks to months duration associated with fever, weakness, neck and back stiffness, and behavioral changes.

Over the years generic 60 caps serpina anxiety symptoms similar to heart attack, rising dissatisfac- tion with this standard culminated in the 1993 case Daubert v order serpina 60 caps visa anxiety 9 year old son. Supreme Court decision established a four-part test for expert testimony: (1) that the theory is testable (has it been tested? Tis case enunciated the guidelines that formally establish the trial judge as the “gatekeeper” to determine the admissibility of scientifc evidence. Over the next several years two other cases refned the test for acceptance of an expert’s testimony. Joiner, established the principle that absent manifest error, the decision of the trial judge in his role as gatekeeper to admit or not admit expert scientifc testimony would not be disturbed on appeal. Tere are other branches of civil law encompassing contracts, prop- erty, wills and successions, trusts, divorce, and custody. However, occasionally an intentional tort, such as an assault or battery, can also become a criminal matter. In addition to intentional torts, there are also negligent torts and strict liability torts. Unlike the criminal justice system, where charges are brought based on 386 Forensic dentistry violations of the penal code, in the civil justice system, tort claims are made on the basis of injury or harm. Te remedy for these damages is monetary, unlike the criminal justice system, where life or liberty is at stake. Recoverable damages include loss of earnings, reasonable medical expenses, pain and sufering, and in some cases punitive damages. However, as health care professionals, dentists are more likely to become involved in two types of civil litigation: standard of care (malpractice) and personal injury. Dentists may become involved in these types of litigation in many ways—ofen as a practicing dentist against whom malpractice is alleged or as an expert witness testifying on behalf of the plaintif or the defendant dentist. A dentist may also be called to testify as a subsequent treating dentist (one who cared for the patient afer the alleged malpractice occurred) or even as a dentist who cared for the patient prior to the incident in question. In these situations the dentist plays a role similar to an expert, from whom opinion testimony may be sought. A legal answer to the summons or claim must be fled with the court in a timely fashion or a default judgment may be issued in favor of the complainant. Terefore, a dentist should immediately notify his or her insurance carrier whenever a claim or summons is received. Typically, the summons will be answered in writing and the response will trigger one of three actions by opposing counsel: (1) dismissal of the suit, (2) settlement of the suit, or (3) initiation of the discovery process. However, if the suit is not dismissed or settled, the evidence gathering stage of the suit begins, and this process is called discovery. Plaintif experts ofen become involved prior to fling suit, in order to determine whether a claim should be fled. However, defense experts usually do not become involved until afer a case is fled and discovery begins. Te discovery pro- cess allows evidence relevant to the suit to be gathered by both parties. Tis process is controlled by the court and is meant to eliminate surprises in court. By sharing information with both parties, settlement of the suit is encouraged before trial. Te discovery of evidence takes place by means of subpoenas, interrogatories, and depositions. An expert witness must prepare for deposition and related matters with the same degree of attention to detail as if preparing for courtroom testimony. Jurisprudence and legal issues 387 Interrogatories are a formal set of written questions that are asked of one party by the other. Tis clarifes matters of evidence and helps to determine what will be presented at trial. Tere are two types of depositions for obtaining information: discovery depositions and evidentiary depositions.

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The child wants the mother there as needed for “emotional refueling” and to maintain feelings of security buy cheap serpina 60 caps on-line anxiety lexapro side effects. In this phase cheap serpina 60 caps amex anxiety symptoms webmd, the child completes the individuation process and learns to relate to objects in an effective, constant manner. A sense of separateness is established, and the child is able to internalize a sus- tained image of the loved object or person when out of sight. The theory of object relations suggests that the individual with borderline personality is fixed in the rapprochement phase of development. This fixation occurs when the mother begins to feel threatened by the increasing autonomy of her child and so withdraws her emotional support during those times or she may instead reward clinging, dependent behaviors. In this way, the child comes to believe that “To grow up and be independent = a ‘bad’ child. In addition, because object constancy is never achieved, the child continues to view objects (people) as parts—either good or bad. Symptomatology (Subjective and Objective Data) Individuals with borderline personality always seem to be in a state of crisis. Their affect is one of extreme intensity and their behavior reflects frequent changeability. These changes Personality Disorders ● 281 can occur within days, hours, or even minutes. Often these individuals exhibit a single, dominant affective tone, such as depression, which may give way periodically to anxious agitation or inappropriate outbursts of anger. Depression occurs in response to feelings of abandonment by the mother in early childhood (see “Predisposing Factors”). Underlying the depression is a sense of rage that is sporadically turned inward on the self and externally on the environment. Seldom is the individual aware of the true source of these feelings until well into long- term therapy. Because of this chronic fear of aban- donment, clients with borderline personality disorder have little tolerance for being alone. They prefer a frantic search for companionship, no matter how unsatisfactory, to sitting with feelings of loneliness, emptiness, and boredom (Sadock & Sadock, 2007). The client with borderline person- ality disorder commonly exhibits a pattern of interaction with others that is characterized by clinging and distancing behav- iors. When clients are clinging to another individual, they may exhibit helpless, dependent, or even childlike behaviors. They overidealize a single individual with whom they want to spend all their time, with whom they express a frequent need to talk, or from whom they seek constant reassurance. Acting-out behaviors, even self-mutilation, may result when they cannot be with this chosen individual. Distancing be- haviors are characterized by hostility, anger, and devaluation of others, arising from a feeling of discomfort with closeness. Distancing behaviors also occur in response to separations, confrontations, or attempts to limit certain behaviors. Deval- uation of others is manifested by discrediting or undermining their strengths and personal significance. Splitting is a primitive ego defense mechanism that is common in people with borderline personality disorder. It arises from their lack of achievement of object constancy and is manifested by an inability to integrate and accept both posi- tive and negative feelings. In their view, people—including themselves—and life situations are either all good or all bad. In their efforts to prevent the separation they so desperately fear, clients with this disorder become masters of manipulation. Playing one individual against another is a common ploy to allay these fears of abandonment. Repetitive, self-mutilative be- haviors, such as cutting, scratching, and burning, are classic manifestations of borderline personality disorder.

If children have learned a schema for horses order serpina 60 caps overnight delivery anxiety disorder symptoms dsm 5, then they may call the striped animal they see at the zoo a horse rather than a zebra discount serpina 60 caps mastercard anxiety symptoms long term. In this case, children fit the existing schema to the new information and label the new information with the existing knowledge. When a mother says, ― “No, honey, that‘s a zebra, not a horse,‖ the child may adapt the schema to fit the new stimulus, learning that there are different types of four-legged animals, only one of which is a horse. Piaget‘s most important contribution to understanding cognitive development, and the fundamental aspect of his theory, was the idea that development occurs in unique and distinct stages, with each stage occurring at a specific time, in a sequential manner, and in a way that allows the child to think about the world using new capacities. Object permanence Children acquire the ability to internally represent the Theory of mind; rapid world through language and mental imagery. They also increase in language Preoperational 2 to 7 years start to see the world from other people‘s perspectives. They can Concrete increasingly perform operations on objects that are only operational 7 to 11 years imagined. Conservation Adolescents can think systematically, can reason about Formal 11 years to abstract concepts, and can understand ethics and scientific operational adulthood reasoning. Abstract logic The first developmental stage for Piaget was the sensorimotor stage, the cognitive stage that begins at birth and lasts until around the age of 2. It is defined by the direct physical interactions that babies have with the objects around them. During this stage, babies form their first schemas by using their primary senses—they stare at, listen to, reach for, hold, shake, and taste the things in their environments. Piaget found, for instance, that if he first interested babies in a toy and then covered the toy with a blanket, children who were younger than 6 months of age would act as if the toy had disappeared completely—they never tried to find it under the blanket but would nevertheless smile and reach for it when the blanket was removed. Piaget found that it was not until about 8 months that the children realized that the object was merely covered and not gone. Piaget used the term object permanence to refer to the child’s ability to know that an object exists even when the object cannot be perceived. Video Clip: Object Permanence Children younger than about 8 months of age do not understand object permanence. At about 2 years of age, and until about 7 years of age, children move into thepreoperational stage. During this stage, children begin to use language and to think more abstractly about objects, but their understanding is more intuitive and without much ability to deduce or reason. The thinking is preoperational, meaning that the child lacks the ability to operate on or transform objects mentally. In one study that showed the extent of this inability, [10] Judy DeLoache (1987) showed children a room within a small dollhouse. The researchers took the children to another lab room, which was an exact replica of the dollhouse room, but full-sized. Three-year-old children, on the other hand, immediately looked for the toy behind the couch, demonstrating that they were improving their operational skills. The inability of young children to view transitions also leads them to be egocentric—unable to readily see and understand other people‘s viewpoints. Developmental psychologists define the theory of mind as the ability to take another person’s viewpoint, and the ability to do so Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. In one demonstration of the development of theory of mind, a researcher shows a child a video of another child (let‘s call her Anna) putting a ball in a red box. Then Anna leaves the room, and the video shows that while she is gone, a researcher moves the ball from the red box into a blue box. The child is then asked to point to the box where Anna will probably look to find her ball. Children who are younger than 4 years of age typically are unable to understand that Anna does not know that the ball has been moved, and they predict that she will look for it in the blue box. After 4 years of age, however, children have developed a theory of mind—they realize that different people can have different viewpoints, and that (although she will be wrong) Anna will nevertheless think that the ball is still in the red box.

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