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By O. Rasarus. Agnes Scott College. 2018.
Explain how you would help your patient overcome the following fears experienced in b buy mestinon 60 mg without a prescription spasms just before falling asleep. Prepare a teaching plan for a postoperative ing tests for the preoperative patient discount mestinon 60 mg with amex spasms groin area. Study Guide for Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art and Science of Nursing Care, 7th Edition. Nutrition: you would institute for a postoperative patient to help alleviate the following problems that interfere with comfort. Prepare a preoperative assessment for the assess when checking a patient in the postop- patients described below. Be sure to include preoperative care, intraoperative care, and postoperative care in your planning. A 52-year-old man who smokes a pack of cig- arettes a day is scheduled to undergo heart b. Study Guide for Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art and Science of Nursing Care, 7th Edition. She asks the nurse, “What if I don’t feel like a She underwent radiation therapy 6 weeks woman anymore? How might the nurse use blended nursing skills Reflect on how individual differences in to implement the perioperative plan of care patients influence their need for nursing and in a manner that respects Ms. Make a list of common postoperative complica- concerns about the surgical experience? Describe how you would monitor the patient for these complications and what nurs- ing measures you would take to prevent them. Be sure to include cardiovascular complications, shock, hemorrhage, thrombophlebitis, respira- tory complications, pneumonia, atelectasis, and 2. What intellectual, technical, interpersonal, Use the following expanded scenario from and/or ethical/legal competencies are most Chapter 30 in your textbook to answer the likely to bring about the desired outcome? Scenario: Molly Greenbaum is a 38-year-old woman diagnosed with recurring vaginal cysts. Her physician recommends a vaginal hysterec- tomy to be performed on an outpatient basis. Study Guide for Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art and Science of Nursing Care, 7th Edition. Which of the following is an appropriate guide- line for providing perineal care for a patient? When bathing your patient, you notice time permits the gum line to change, she has a rash on her arms. Use a tepid bath to relieve inflammation water because the plastic material may and itching. Soiled dressings or anything with a strong ent age groups, which of the following should odor should not be placed in the waste the nurse consider? In general, room temperature should be are protected from infection by a natural between 20 and 23 C (68 and 74 F). Secretions from skin glands are at their tions immediately outside the patient’s maximum from age 3 on. Which of the following statements accurately with aging and is prone to wrinkles and describe findings that may be made when dryness. Hard deposits called tartar may be found on Circle the letters that correspond to the best the teeth if plaque is allowed to build up. Which of the following actions are appropriate steps when making an unoccupied bed? Ideally, brush teeth immediately after sheet with its center fold in the center of eating or drinking. If desired, use an automatic toothbrush to head of the mattress, forming a corner remove debris and plaque from teeth. Which of the following statements accurately as cleaning agents for short-term use. Clean the eye from the inner canthus to need to open and close the stand to obtain the outer canthus using a wet, warm wash- bath basin, lotion, and other items.
Brigano a dentist who was also the coroner testifed that the den- tal records and the teeth he examined in the body “matched … perfectly 60mg mestinon otc muscle relaxant essential oils. Te Fourth Amendment claim was denied due to the lack of any reasonable expectation of privacy by a defendant over what a person knowingly exhibits (in this case his smile) to the public coupled with the fact that a dental examination does not constitute a “search” (quotation marks in original) mestinon 60 mg with visa spasms after stent removal. State a dentist identifed a skull with- out the use of mathematics/percentages, but rather by comparison and based on the outline of a single flling, the bone pattern, and the outline of another tooth. Te court was satisfed that even without specifc forensic training, the dentist was qualifed to make the identifcation and that any objections by the defense should go to the weight given the testimony by the jury rather than to its admissibility. Although there was minor variation in two antemortem dental charts used in the process, the court accepted the expert dentist’s opinion without the use 392 Forensic dentistry of probabilities or without any declaration that the body was in fact the victim to the exclusion of all other individuals in the world. Singletary,14 and later afrmed on appeal,15 a dental identifcation using casts, records, x-rays, and an unusual dental feature cited by the forensic dentist was sufcient to establish the identity. Mayens16 confrms the business record foun- dation for admission of dental records used in identifcations. A New York case afrmed the granting of an order to exhume cremains and deliver them to Drs. Because the body was not recovered for over two years, dental identifcation was the sole means of positive identifcation. Te forensic dentist is aforded an opportunity to interact with individuals and systems outside the normal realm of dental practice. Both general dentists and dental specialists enter with equal foot- ing in the feld. However, success requires dedication and a willingness to learn and become comfortable with the legal system, the legal profession, law enforcement, and the world of the coroner/medical examiner. Te forensic dentist must be dedicated to the pursuit of the truth and must adhere to the highest ethical standard. A good forensic dentist can, without breach- ing ethical standards, be a good witness—one that advances the cause of justice by presenting the truth on the stand and fulflling the expert’s role to educate the attorneys, the judge, and the jury about the dental facts at issue. Failure to comply with appropriate evidence management procedures can lead to signifcant adverse results during litigation. It is, therefore, incumbent upon all forensic dentists to become knowledgeable in evidence handling, not only for the ultimate court- room success, but also for the profession as a whole. Tis knowledge base can be established via the clear and concise evidence management guidelines presented in this chapter. All supplies and equipment required for the collec- tion of forensic dental evidence should be on hand and ready for deployment to a remote crime scene if warranted. Professional credentials, business cards, and other forms of professional identifcation should be immediately available for presentation to law enforcement as required. Te most impor- tant preparatory step in evidence management for forensic dentists is the establishment of excellent liaison with other forensic professionals and all law enforcement agencies within their jurisdictions well in advance of any evidence collection/interpretation event. Odontologists operating out of a medical examiner’s facilities (or consulting from their private ofces) receive evi- dence from law enforcement or legal consultants that may have already been entered into some type of evidence management system. Te mandate is to document the arrival of this physical evidence into the odontologist’s custody. Should the dentist travel to a scene containing forensic dental evidence, his or her foremost responsibility is to ensure safe entry into the scene. In some instances the odontologist will be required to provide appropriate identifca- tion to on-scene law enforcement or emergency responder personnel, to sign into an entry log, and to don appropriate personal protective gear prior to entering the scene. Tis may simply entail the forensic dentist’s evidence management 397 compliance with the security protocols of the local medical examiner’s ofce (i. In cases where forensic dental evidence is delivered to the dentist’s ofce, an ofce protocol should be established logging the evidence into the facility. Reference as to how evidence is secured within the facility, as well as log entries detailing acceptance of evidence into and departure out of the facility, should be included in the fnal analytical report. Te dentist should ensure that any packing list, narrative description, or telephonic conversa- tion describing the received evidence accurately depicts the items delivered. Any discrepancies in the con- tents of the evidence delivery from the description provided to the forensic dentist should be resolved prior to initiating any further analysis. Similarly, this survey technique should be utilized at the medical examiner’s ofce: Are the remains within the body bag consistent with the medical examiner’s report with regard to sex, stature, race, cause and manner of death?
Determine the osmolality of the drug (drug literature or pharmacist) and liquid dilution buy generic mestinon 60 mg on line muscle relaxant guidelines. D × V = 650 mg × 1 mL = 10 mL H 65 mg H V x 65 mg : 1mL :: 650 mg: :xmL 65x = 650 x = 10 mL of acetaminophen 2 cheap 60 mg mestinon mastercard spasms small intestine. In addition, the patient might be given fat emulsion supplemental therapy to increase the number of calories and to receive fat-soluble vitamins. The infusion is given through a central venous line such as the subclavian or internal jugular vein to prevent irritation to the peripheral veins. The nurse must monitor the patient for signs of complications as a result of inserting the catheter and the infusion of the feeding. The pharmacy uses a laminar airflow hood when preparing parenteral nutritional solutions to reduce this risk. Monitor the patient carefully for hyperglycemia when you initiate parenteral nutrition support because the pancreas needs time to adjust to the hypertonic dextrose solution, which is high in glucose. Sometimes hyperglycemia is tem- porary and dissipates once the pancreas makes the necessary adjustments. To pre- vent this from occurring, begin with 1 liter of solution for the first 24 hours. Increase this by 500 to 1000 mL each day until you reach a daily volume of 2500 mL to 3000 mL. Caution: Don’t suddenly interrupt parenteral nutrition support because the patient can experience hypoglycemia. Nutrients enter the body as food and are absorbed as chemical reactions break down food into molecules that enter the bloodstream where they are distributed throughout the body. Surgery, trauma, malignancy, and other catabolic illnesses cause a nutritional imbalance that, if prolonged, can have a dramatic impact on the patient that could ultimately lead to death. Enteral nutritional support therapy introduces nutrition into the patient by mouth or a feeding tube that is directly inserted in the stomach or small intestine. Parenteral nutritional support therapy administers high caloric nutrients through large veins such as the subclavian vein. Nausea and vomiting may occur during enteral therapy if which of the following occurs? A healthy, well-nourished person has a nutritional level to last 14 days before they begin to show signs of malnutrition. Fortunately, most times the pain goes away and the inflammation subsides relatively quickly and doesn’t interfere with daily activities. However, this isn’t always the case—especially when the injury is severe such as arthritis, gout, toothache, or other painful conditions including menstrual cramps. For these conditions, medication is needed to decrease the inflammation so your daily activities are not interrupted. In this chapter, you’ll learn about inflammation and the medications that are prescribed to reduce the redness, swelling, warmth, and pain that is associated with inflammation. An Inside Look at Inflammation Inflammation is the body’s protective response to injury to tissues. Injury causes the release of three chemicals that stimulate a vascular response that force 197 Copyright © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. This chemical works to bring more blood and lymph fluid to the site of the invasion. These are blood plasma proteins that influence smooth muscle con- tractions, increase blood flow throughout the body, increase the perme- ability of small capillaries, and stimulate pain receptors. They are produced in response to the white blood cells that flow to the area of injured tissue. It is important not to confuse inflammation and infection because they are not the same. Only a small percentage of inflammation is caused by infection from micro- organisms. Trauma, surgery, extreme heat or cold, electricity, and caustic chem- icals cause most inflammation. It is dur- ing this phase that blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and become more perme- able, enabling fluid and white blood cells to leave the plasma and flow to the injured tissue. White blood cells (also called leukocytes or immune cells) are components found in the blood.
When you are in authentic presence with other generic mestinon 60 mg visa muscle relaxant kava, the call for nursing unfolds before you discount 60 mg mestinon visa spasms in rectum. Then there are the more frequent encounters where reflection becomes a useful tool to uncover the deeper meaning behind these chance nursing situations. I walked into the room with the willingness to come to know other, whatever may have been revealed in that moment. It was the way I touched the patient, my tone of voice, my unhurried pace, and my smile—all the tools I use to convey to other that I am there and that I care. I take time regularly to reflect upon the profound and not-so-profound nursing situations in my life. Reflection uncovers those hidden meanings that are not readily apparent in the moment. It is also a time for self- growth and validation—a process of coming to know self and others as caring persons. Sharing with Others Another form of reflection is the sharing of nursing situations with others. There are many different ways one can present a nursing situation, such as case presentations, poems, projects, and various other art forms. When one shares a nursing situation with others, new possibilities for knowing other unfold exponentially. First, I will present it in the traditional medical model, and then I will present the same story in a nursing perspective grounded in the nursing as caring theory. Through comparison, the lived experience of both of these models will make clearer the difference between practice per- spectives. She remarked that she did not like going to the doctor and had neglected to have any checkups in quite a few years. I ordered blood tests, all of which were unremarkable with the ex- ception of the Ca125, which was 625, well above normal parameters. Three days after our initial visit, I asked her to return to the office so we could discuss the results. She said I had done so much for her in our visit, she wanted to share with me a precious gift the Lord had given her—her voice. There, in the office, I sat with her labs in my lap as she serenaded me with a song. I don’t remember the name of the song, but the verse told me Jesus was calling her home and she was not afraid. I advised her that although the blood test was not diagnostic, the pos- sibility of cancer did exist and she needed to see an oncological gynecologist. After a month of invasive testing at the family’s prompting, exploratory surgery and biopsies confirmed the diagno- sis of ovarian cancer with extensive metastasis. The patient underwent a total abdominal hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy with debulking, and she died shortly thereafter. There is a lot one can learn from a case presentation such as this one, but it does not reflect the essence of what occurred between the nurse and the one nursed. The reader is left wondering what the nurse did that prompted such a special present in return. Nursing as Caring Case Presentation As the morning rolled along, I began to dream. My arms outstretched, reached for the sun, found the sky, and in it, a gentle breeze that surrounded and calmed me. I stood in awe of the sun’s beauty as its rays poured over me and warmed my spirit. I saw a glow on the horizon, unlike the sun and different from the moon and stars. An ember, the residual of a fire that has burned through the night, tirelessly, to provide warmth. I reached upward, grasping for the restoration of harmonious interconnectedness, but in the sky, there is nothing to grab onto. You may grow into it, enjoy its beauty, bask in its breezes, and breathe in its life-giving oxygen, but you cannot hold on to it or possess it. My arms grew weary, my leaves were wilted, so I drank from the spring beneath my foundation. I began to feel stronger and reached toward the sky, hoping to catch one last glimpse of her ember and saw her reflection in the sun.
From the arrival of the settlers in the mid- nineteenth century until about the middle of the twentieth century cheap mestinon 60mg with visa spasms in upper abdomen, most Maoris lived on the ancestral lands mestinon 60 mg free shipping spasms medicine, close to families. Maori urbanisation occurred rapidly after this, however, and with it the gradual loss of commu- nity support, which is held to be at least partially responsible for some of the current situation. More recently, Maoris in these urban areas have been re- evaluating their past and reinstituting traditional customs and practices, including those of Maori health (Hauora Maori). Traditional remedies Maoris, similar to Samoan people, also believe that good health results when there is a balance between the various worlds that they inhabit. Maoris, however, recognise four factors – spiritual, physical, emotional and psychological – as being crucial for good health. Hauora Maori encom- passes all of these and Maori medical practice includes a combination of treatments such as massage, counselling and medicines, many of which are derived from native plants. Joseph Crocome, for example, who was the first medically qualified person to practise in Otago (among the whalers and missionaries in Waikouaiti in 1838), is reported:. Traditional medicines in the Pacific | 287 Later visitors observed that plants were used during the treatment of many internal medical problems. Some of these writers considered that plants were used mainly as adjuncts during the largely ritualistic treatment of these conditions, possibly because Maoris at that time did not recognise disease as a cause of death. Disorders of the body were thought instead to be caused by the influence of evil spirits and as such could be removed only by the power of the ‘priest’/healer (tohunga):23. The native belief that all bodily ailments were caused by evil spirits, or came as a punishment from the gods, effectually prevented research in even simple lines such as herbal remedies. When they at last received the knowledge of internal medicine from Europeans the natives were captivated by the new mode of exorcising evil spirits. They took to medicine as a duck to water, and swallowed any nostrum they could procure, be it ever so vile. The tohunga pretended to be instructed by his god as to the herbs he should select and the manner of combining them. Others were used internally to treat what might be described in general terms as gastroin- testinal or breathing problems. Many could have been related to the living conditions of most Maoris at the time, when food was scarce, especially in winter months, and living conditions were often crowded and close. Heated stones were placed in a form of an earth oven, 288 | Traditional medicine sprinkled with water and then covered with the plant(s) supposed to be efficacious in the treatment of the specific condition. The bark of kowhai (Sophora microphylla, macrophylla), when ‘taken only from the sunny side of the tree’, could be: ‘infused, mixed with wood ash. Traditional medicines in the Pacific | 289 Its almost miraculous effect on George Nepia, an All Black rugby player whose leg had been so seriously damaged that it seemed that amputation might be the only treatment, is vividly described in his biography:38 What a contrast, I thought. A pakeha [European] doctor had told me that I would not play again during the season. Captain Cook used the dried leaves of manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) to make a tea, ‘which has a very agreeable bitter taste and flavour when they are recent’. The leaves and bark of manuka were used as a decoction to treat urinary problems, and to reduce fever. Infu- sions of the inner bark were used to promote sleep and ease pain, and its seed capsules chewed to relieve colic pains and diarrhoea. Harakeke (Phormium tenax), the New Zealand flax, was used for shelter, clothing, baskets, mats and general healing. So important was this plant to nineteenth-century Maoris that they were reported to have been astonished when they discovered that it did not grow in England and to have asked how the English managed to live without it. The boiled liquid of both leaf bases and roots were used internally as a purgative. Present day In New Zealand, as in the other three countries discussed in this chapter, more recognition is being given to the therapeutic value of traditional medicines, including the use of medicines derived from local flora. Although some knowl- edge has inevitably been lost over time, the increasing interest in Rongoa 290 | Traditional medicine Maori by both Maori and non-Maori New Zealanders is ensuring that current knowledge is both stored and expanded. Traditional uses of plants have been taken as indicators of chemical content and pharmacological activity and hence possible commercial value. There is disquiet among some older Maoris that this research involving use of local knowledge might be exploited by over- seas interests to the detriment of New Zealand people and certainly this is a factor that must be recognised as a potential problem in all countries not yet protected by international agreements. Overall, however, the future for tradi- tional medicine is looking bright as more and more people are recognising the value of such treatments, to be used not instead of ‘western’ medicines but as complementary to them. Hawaii: The National Tropical Botanical Garden, 1992 More information Te Rongoa – Maori Herbal Medicine: http://pharmacy.
If your symptoms are numerous and severe or your life seems out of control purchase 60 mg mestinon amex spasms 14 year old beagle, you should consult your primary care physician or a mental health professional cheap mestinon 60 mg with amex muscle relaxant phase 2 block. These quizzes aren’t meant to replace trained mental health professionals — they’re the only people who can really diagnose your problem. Dwelling on Dismal and Worried Thoughts If you were able to listen in on the thoughts that reverberate through a depressed person’s head, you might hear “I’m a failure,” “My future looks bleak,” “Things just keep on getting worse,” or “I regret so many things in my life. The very darkest thoughts usually lead to depression, whereas anxiety usually stems from thoughts about being judged or hurt. Take the quiz in Worksheet 1-1 to determine if your thoughts reflect a problem with anxiety or depression. Although these thoughts can occur to someone who’s either depressed or anxious (or both), the odd-numbered items are most indicative of depression, and the even-numbered items reflect anxious thinking. However, the more items you endorse, the more you have cause for concern; specifically, if you check more than eight or ten items, you should think seriously about addressing your condition. At the same time, if you very strongly believe in any of these items, you just may have too much anxiety or depression. If you have any thoughts of suicide or utter hopelessness, you should consult your primary care physician or a mental health professional immediately. Chapter 1: Sorting Out Signs of Anxiety and Depression 11 Walking in Quicksand: Apprehensive and Blue Behavior If you were to follow a depressed or anxious person around, you might see some behavioral signs of their emotional turmoil. That’s because depression and anxiety on the inside affect what people do on the outside. For example, a depressed person may look tired, move slowly, or withdraw from friends and family; an anxious person may avoid socializing or have a trembling voice. Take the quiz in Worksheet 1-2 to see if your behavior indicates a problem with anxiety and/or depression. I feel compelled to repeat actions (such as hand washing, checking locks, arrang- ing things in a certain way, and so on). Even-numbered items are most consistent with anxiety, and odd-numbered items largely indicate depression. And, of course, like many people, you may have symptoms of both types of problems. In fact, some people primar- ily suffer from changes in appetite, sleep, energy, or pain while reporting few problematic thoughts or behaviors. These symptoms directly affect your body, but they’re not as easily observed by other people as the behavioral signs covered in the preceding section. Part I: Analyzing Angst and Preparing a Plan 12 Take The Sad, Stressed Sensations Quiz in Worksheet 1-3 to see if your body is trying to tell you something about your emotional state. The symptoms in this quiz can also result from various physical illnesses, drugs in your medicine cabinet, or even your three-cup coffee fix in the morning. Be sure to consult your primary care physician if you’re experiencing any of the symptoms in The Sad, Stressed Sensations Quiz. It’s always a good idea to have a checkup once a year and more frequently if you experience noticeable changes in your body. Although physical sensations overlap in anxiety and depression, even-numbered items in the quiz above are most consistent with anxiety, and the odd-numbered items usually plague those with depression. Reflecting upon Relationships When you’re feeling down or distressed for any length of time, odds are that your relation- ships with those around you will take a hit. Although you may think that your depression or anxiety affects only you, it impacts your friends, family, lovers, co-workers, and acquaintances. Take the quiz in Worksheet 1-4 to see if your emotions are causing trouble with your rela- tionships. Chapter 1: Sorting Out Signs of Anxiety and Depression 13 Worksheet 1-4 The Conflicted Connections Quiz ❏ 1. You guessed it; there’s no cutoff score here to tell you definitively whether or not you’re anxious or depressed. But the more items you check off, the more your relationships are suffering from your anxiety, depression, or both.
Adolescent Anger Control: Cognitive-Behav- behaviors rewarded and others discouraged cheap mestinon 60 mg free shipping spasms lower right abdomen. Behind the One-Way Mirror: Psy- nitive development is that of French psychologist Jean chotherapy and Children cheap 60 mg mestinon with visa gas spasms. Although Thinking: Breaking the Cycle of Depressing and Anxious Piaget was interested in how children reacted to their en- Thoughts. They also begin to are continually being modified by two complementary lose their egocentric focus, becoming able to understand processes that Piaget termed assimilation and accom- a situation from the viewpoint of another person. Assimilation refers to the process of taking in The fourth, or formal operations, stage begins in new information by incorporating it into an existing early adolescence (age 11 or 12) with the development of schema. In other words, we assimilate new experiences the ability to think logically about abstractions, including by relating them to things we already know. Ado- hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema lescents are capable of formulating and testing hypothe- itself changes to accommodate new knowledge. Accord- ses, understanding causality, and dealing with abstract ing to Piaget, cognitive development involves an ongo- concepts like probability, ratio, proportion, and analogies. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development Modern views At the center of Piaget’s theory is the principle that cognitive development occurs in a series of four distinct, In the decades since Piaget’s theory of cognitive de- universal stages, each characterized by increasingly so- velopment became widely known, other researchers have phisticated and abstract levels of thought. These stages contested some of its principles, claiming that children’s always occur in the same order, and each builds on what progress through the four stages of development is more was learned in the previous stage. It has sensorimotor, stage (birth to 24 months), knowledge is been found that children do not always reach the differ- gained primarily through sensory impressions and motor ent stages at the age levels he specified, and that their activity. Through these two modes of learning, experi- entry into some of the stages is more gradual than was enced both separately and in combination, infants gradu- first thought. However, Piaget remains the most influen- ally learn to control their own bodies and objects in the tial figure in modern child development research, and external world. The ultimate task at this stage is to many of his ideas are still considered accurate, including achieve a sense of object constancy, or permanence—the the basic notion of qualitative shifts in children’s think- sense that objects go on existing even when we cannot ing over time, the general trend toward greater logic and see them. This developing concept can be seen in the less egocentrism as they get older, the concepts of assim- child’s keen enjoyment of games in which objects are re- ilation and accommodation, and the importance of active peatedly made to disappear and reappear. The preoperational stage (ages two to six years) in- The most significant alternative to the work of Pi- volves the manipulation of images and symbols. One ob- aget has been the information-processing approach, ject can represent another, as when a broom is turned which uses the computer as a model to provide new in- into a “horsey” that can be ridden around the room, and a sight into how the human mind receives, stores, re- child’s play expands to include “pretend” games. Researchers using infor- guage acquisition is yet another way of manipulating mation-processing theory to study cognitive develop- symbols. Key concepts involved in the logical organiza- ment in children have focused on areas such as the grad- tion of thoughts—such as causality, time, and perspec- ual improvements in children’s ability to take in tive—are still absent, as is an awareness that substances information and focus selectively on certain parts of it retain the same volume even when shifted into contain- and their increasing attention spans and capacity for ers of different sizes and shapes. For example, they have found that the mains egocentric throughout both the preoperational and superior memory skills of older children are due in part sensorimotor stages. During the third, or concrete operational, stage (six or seven to 11 years of age), children can perform logical Today it is widely accepted that a child’s intellectual operations, but only in relation to concrete external ob- ability is determined by a combination of heredity and jects rather than ideas. Thus, although a child’s genetic inheri- measure, and they learn about the conservation of length, tance is unchangeable, there are definite ways that par- mass, area, weight, time, and volume. At this stage, chil- ents can enhance their children’s intellectual develop- dren can sort items into categories, reverse the direction ment through environmental factors. Other funda- mature, parents can both challenge and support the mental aspects of cognition are reasoning, the process by child’s talents. Although a supportive environment in which people formulate arguments and arrive at conclu- early childhood provides a clear advantage for a child, it sions, and problem solving—devising a useful represen- is possible to make up for early losses in cognitive devel- tation of a problem and planning, executing, and evaluat- opment if a supportive environment is provided at some ing a solution. Studies in Cognitive Growth: A Collabora- term memory provides the basis for one’s working tion at the Center for Cognitive Studies. The cognitive function that most distinctively sets Piaget, Jean, and Barbel Inhelder. The Growth of Logical humans apart from other animals is the ability to com- Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. Of historical interest is the work of Benjamin Whorf (1897-1941), the proponent of the idea that the language people use determines the way in which they view the world. As of the late 1990s, most Cognition psychologists view the Whorfian hypothesis with skepti- A general term for the higher mental processes by cism, believing that language and perception interact to which people acquire knowledge, solve problems, influence one another. Language acquisition is another topic of debate, Cognition depends on the ability to imagine or rep- with some—including psycholinguist Noam Chomsky resent objects and events that are not physically present —arguing that all humans have innate language abilities, at a given moment. Cognitive functions include atten- while behaviorists stress the role of conditioning and so- tion, perception, thinking, judging, decision making, cial learning theorists stress the importance of imitation problem solving, memory, and linguistic ability.
