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Each nucleotide generic desyrel 100 mg with mastercard anxiety 38 weeks pregnant, in turn cheap 100 mg desyrel with visa anxiety symptoms webmd, is composed of a five-carbon sugar (deoxyri- bose or ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Strand 1 Part I: Building Blocks of the Body 14 The following is an example question dealing with chemical reactions: Q. Nucleic acids Chapter 1: The Chemistry of Life 15 Cycling through Life: Metabolism Metabolism (from the Greek metabole, which means “change”) is the word for the myriad chemical reactions that happen in the body, particularly as they relate to gen- erating, storing, and expending energy. Catabolic reactions break food down into energy (memory tip: it can be cata- strophic when things break down). Anabolic reactions require the expenditure of energy to build up compounds that the body needs. The chemical alteration of mole- cules in the cell is referred to as cellular metabolism. Enzymes can be used as catalysts, accelerating chemical reactions without being changed by the reactions. Oxidation-reduction reactions are an important pair of reactions that occur in carbohy- drate, lipid, and protein metabolism (see Figure 1-10). When a substance is oxidized, it loses electrons and hydrogen ions, removing a hydrogen atom from each molecule. When a substance is reduced, it gains electrons and hydrogen ions, adding a hydrogen atom to each molecule. Oxidation and reduction occur together, so whenever one sub- stance is oxidized, another is reduced. The body uses this chemical-reaction pairing to transport energy in a process known as the respiratory chain, or the electron transport chain. All food carbohydrates are eventually broken down into glu- cose; therefore, carbohydrate metabolism is really glucose metabolism. The oxidation process in which energy is released from molecules, such as glucose, and transferred to other molecules is called cellular respiration. It occurs in three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain: 1. Glycolysis From the Greek glyco (sugar) and lysis (breakdown), this is the first stage of both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) respiration. Taking place in the cell’s cytoplasm (see Chapter 2), glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen to occur. Krebs cycle Also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle or citric acid cycle, this series of energy- producing chemical reactions begins in the mitochondria after pyruvate arrives from glycolysis. Before the Krebs cycle can begin, the pyruvate loses a carbon dioxide group to form acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA). During the conversion, two carbon atoms are lost as carbon dioxide and energy is released. The cycle goes through eight steps, rearranging the atoms of citric acid to produce different intermedi- ate molecules called keto acids. Electron transport chain The electron transport chain is a series of energy compounds attached to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Hydrogen from oxidized food sources attaches to coenzymes that in turn com- bine with molecular oxygen. Oxidative phosphorylation is important because it makes energy available in a form the cells can use. At the end of the chain, two positively charged hydrogen molecules combine with two electrons and an atom of oxygen to form water. Respiration Lipid metabolism only requires portions of the processes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. Lipids contain about 99 percent of the body’s stored energy and can be digested at mealtime, but as people who complain about fats going “straight to their hips” can attest, lipids are more inclined to be stored in adipose tissue — the stuff gen- erally identified with body fat. Those reactions continue to strip two carbon atoms at a time until the entire fatty acid chain is con- verted into acetyl CoA. Part I: Building Blocks of the Body 18 Protein metabolism focuses on producing the amino acids needed for synthesis of pro- tein molecules within the body.
Sexual dysfunction disorders can be described as an impairment or disturbance in any of the phases of the sexual response cycle order 100mg desyrel with mastercard anxiety symptoms 3 months. These include disorders of desire purchase desyrel 100mg otc anxiety symptoms anger, arousal, and orgasm and disorders that relate to the experience of genital pain during intercourse. Paraphilias The term “paraphilia” is used to identify repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies or behaviors that involve any of the following: 1. Repetitive sexual activity with humans involving real or sim- ulated suffering or humiliation. Most individuals with paraphilias are men, and the behavior is generally estab- lished in adolescence (Andreasen & Black, 2006). Common fetish objects include bras, women’s underpants, stockings, shoes, boots, or other wearing apparel. The fetish object is generally used during masturbation or in- corporated into sexual activity with another person to pro- duce sexual excitation. When the fetish involves cross-dressing, the disorder is called transvestic fetishism. Sexual excitement is derived from the actual touching or rubbing, not from the coercive nature of the act. The age of the mo- lester is 16 or older and is at least 5 years older than the child. Examples include becoming sexually aroused by self-inflicted pain or by being restrained, raped, or beaten by a sexual partner. The sadistic activities may be fantasized or acted on with a consenting or nonconsenting partner. In all instances, sexual excitation occurs in response to the suffer- ing of the victim. Sexual excitement is achieved through the act of looking, and no contact with the person is attempted. Masturba- tion usually accompanies the “window peeping” but may Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders ● 203 occur later as the individual fantasizes about the voyeuris- tic act. Biological Factors: Various studies have implicated sev- eral organic factors in the etiology of paraphilias. De- struction of parts of the limbic system in animals has been shown to cause hypersexual behavior (Becker & Johnson, 2008). Temporal lobe diseases, such as psy- chomotor seizures or temporal lobe tumors, have been implicated in some individuals with paraphilias. Abnor- mal levels of androgens also may contribute to inappro- priate sexual arousal. The majority of studies involved violent sex offenders, and the results cannot accurately be generalized. Psychoanalytical Theory: The psychoanalytic approach defines a paraphiliac as one who has failed the normal developmental process toward heterosexual adjustment (Sadock & Sadock, 2007). This occurs when the indi- vidual fails to resolve the Oedipal crisis and identifies with the parent of the opposite gender. This creates in- tense anxiety, which leads the individual to seek sexual gratification in ways that provide a “safe substitution” for the parent (Becker & Johnson, 2008). Sexual arousal from being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer (through fantasy, self-infliction, or by a sexual partner). Sexual arousal by inflicting psychological or physical suffering on another individual (either consenting or nonconsenting). Sexual arousal from observing unsuspecting people either naked or engaged in sexual activity. Masturbation often accompanies the activities described when they are performed solitarily. Male Orgasmic Disorder (Retarded Ejaculation): With this disorder, the man is unable to ejaculate, even though he has a firm erection and has had more than adequate stimulation.
When the bladder fills generic 100 mg desyrel visa anxiety workbook for teens, the increased pressure stimulates the organ’s stretch receptors discount desyrel 100 mg fast delivery anxiety hierarchy, prompting the individual to urinate. The male and female urethras Both males and females have a urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder to a body opening, or orifice. Both males and females have an internal sphincter con- trolled by the autonomic nervous system and composed of smooth muscle to guard the exit from the bladder. Both males and females also have an external sphincter com- posed of circular striated muscle that’s under voluntary control. The female urethra is about one and a half inches long and lies close to the vagina’s anterior (front) wall. The external sphinc- ter for the female urethra lies just inside the urethra’s exit point. Several openings appear in this region of the urethra, including a small opening where sperm from the vas deferens and ejacu- latory duct enters, and prostatic ducts where fluid from the prostate enters. The membranous urethra is a small 1- or 2-centimeter portion that contains the external sphincter and penetrates the pelvic floor. The cavernous urethra, also known as the spongy urethra, runs the length of the penis on its ventral surface through the corpus spongiosum, ending at a vertical slit at the end of the penis. The and urinary systems is complete in male urethra runs through the the human same “plumbing” as the male reproductive system. The internal sphincter found at the junction of the bladder neck and the urethra is composed of a. Smooth muscle tissue Spelling Relief: Urination Urination, known by the medical term micturition, occurs when the bladder is emptied through the urethra. Although urine is created continuously, it’s stored in the bladder until the individual finds a convenient time to release it. Mucus produced in the blad- der’s lining protects its walls from any acidic or alkaline effects of the stored urine. When there is about 200 milliliters of urine distending the bladder walls, stretch recep- tors transmit impulses to warn that the bladder is filling. Afferent impulses are trans- mitted to the spinal cord, and efferent impulses return to the bladder, forming a reflex arc that causes the internal sphincter to relax and the muscular layer of the bladder to contract, forcing urine into the urethra. The afferent impulses continue up the spinal cord to the brain, creating the urge to urinate. Because the external sphincter is com- posed of skeletal muscle tissue, no urine usually is released until the individual volun- tarily opens the sphincter. Renal artery Chapter 12: Filtering Out the Junk: The Urinary System 203 Answers to Questions on the Urinary System The following are answers to the practice questions presented in this chapter. Irregular sac-like structures for collecting urine in the renal pelvis e Collecting tubule: d. The other answer option can’t be correct because carbon dioxide exits the body through the lungs. Peritoneal refers to the peritoneum, the membrane lining the abdominal cavity; and retro can be defined as “situated behind. Each nephron contains a series of the parts needed to do the kidney’s filtering job. Afferent arteriole → Glomerulus → Proximal convoluted tubule → Loop of Henle → Distal convoluted tubule → Collecting tubule. In short, blood comes through the artery (arteriole) and material gloms onto the nephron before twisting through the near (proximal) tubes, loop- ing the loop, twisting through the distant (distal) tubes, and collecting itself at the other end. Those brush borders provide extra surface area for reabsorption, so it makes sense that they congregate in the first area after filtration. The glomerulus is a collection of capillaries with big pores, so think of it as the initial filtering sieve. These tubules have the most surface area with all those villi brush borders, so they reabsorb the most.
